Workbased learning as a pathway for increasing the number of degree qualified workers in Australia

Workbased learning as a pathway for increasing the number of degree qualified workers in Australia

Introduction

Notions of learning being ‘lifelong’ [as opposed to learning up to when you finish your formal ‘education’] have been evolving in parallel with related social and economic developments [such as changes in the nature of work, the expansion of information technologies and the globalisation of markets] over some 40 years or more  (Andersson et al., 2013; Australian Workforce and Productivity Agency  2013; CEDEFOP 2010; Engestrom 2011; Pitman and Vidovich 2013). During the latter part of this evolution, there has be n a development in education management to construct qualifications frameworks [QFs] not only as a means of connecting a person’s own lifelong learning journey with various levels of accredited learning [within the education services industry] and to recognise learning that occurs outside formal education settings (AQF Council 2009 & 2013; CEDEFOP 2013; Education and Culture DG & EQF 2013; Ministry of Science Technology & Innovation 2005).

As a result of this, QFs are now a part of  governments’ education policy menus. From a policy perspective, it appears that one important function of QFs is to build capacity into the education system to be able to respond to the labour market’s need for not only higher levels of skill but also, different skills. However, it is clear that QFs do vary in purpose with these variations spread across a wide spectrum from being ‘transformational devices to descriptive tools’ (CEDEFOP 2010, p. 10). As well, QFs are a mechanism for bringing a level of ‘regulation’ over the education industry and its various layers and sectors.  For example, standards and obligations regarding the transfer, accumulation and  recognition of credit are generally incorporated within QFs. This brings the promise of clear pathways of progression, that enable students to not only see  and plan how to progress, but to then use their progressive achievements as the foundation for the next step. As part of the credit process, QFs have been designed to incorporate the recognition of non formal learning [be it from work or personal interests] as well as to give certainty to the credit that will be granted from a previous level of [lower or related] study.  

Building capacity into the education system is an important driver for QFs because contemporary developed economies are facing ongoing challenges to produce sufficient numbers of graduates to meet labour market demands (Australian Workforce and Productivity Agency 2013; CEDEFOP 2011; deWeert 2011; Hackett et al., 2012). In recent years in Australia, there has been a significant increase in enrolments in bachelor degree awards (Commonwealth of Australia 2009; Bradley et al., 2008; Norton 2013); however, there are questions as to whether this is sustainable (deWeert 2011; Norton 2013). It seems likely that to achieve longer term continued growth in the number of bachelor degree graduates, the education system in Australia will need to have a number of different pathways for both entry into and progression through undergraduate degrees. It is surprising that the Australian university system has been reluctant to embrace some developments which have proved to be effective in other developed countries and regions. For example, this reluctance is evident in the absence of any university in Australia offering undergraduate degrees through workbased learning. In a country noted for its early development of initiatives such as distance education and professional doctorates(National Qualifications Authority 2006), it is surprising that there appears to be such a strong focus on traditional, academic progression as the primary pathway for responding to the emergent needs of the Australian labour market.  

Australia first established its national qualifications framework in 1995 (AQF Council, 2013; Burke et al., 2009) with important iterations leading up to the current Australian Qualifications Framework [AQF], that comes into operation from 2015 (AQF Council 2013). The challenges that have prompted such a policy are clear. One such challenge is that by 2025, according to modelling developed for Australia’s latest workforce strategy, Australia could be 2.8 million short of the number of higher-skilled qualifications that industry will demand. (Australian Workforce and Productivity Agency 2013, p.9). At the same time, another important important challenge is that many Australians lack the language, literacy and numeracy skills to participate in training and work. Only just over half (54 per cent) of Australians aged 15 to 74 years have been assessed as having the prose literacy skills needed to meet the complex demands of everyday life and work (Australian Workforce and Productivity Agency 2013, p.9). The move from an ‘egg ’ to an ‘hour glass’ shaped labour market (Winter & Bryson, 1997) [with greater numbers of workers at the ‘opposite’ ends of the hour glass] is present in Australia as well as other developed countries and this represents a major challenge for the efficacy of policy tools such as the AQF.

In short, there is a reasonable level of doubt that  the current approach to higher education service delivery in Australia will  achieve the countries desired outcomes in regard to bachelor graduates. [The issues at the other end of the hour glass are just as important but our focus in this article is on higher education and specifically, the university sector.] This review has been undertaken as part of an ongoing action research oriented project being undertaken by a small group of academics seeking to develop and expand workbased learning in Australia. Workbased learning is an important pathway available to students in the United Kingdom [and to varying degrees in other European countries] and the project members set out to better understand (1) the current performance of the Australian higher education system in relation to bachelor degree targets and (2) whether workbased learning is likely to be a beneficial addition to the pathways for achieving these targets in Australia.

To support the review of the Australian  higher education system’s performance and to ensure the need for completeness,  the researchers firstly undertook  a desk review of this performance using key elements of the Australian Qualification Framework. The researchers identified from the literature (AQF Council 2009; Bradley et al., 2008; Burke et al., 2009; CEDEFOP 2010 &  2013; CEDEFOP & ETF 2013; Commonwealth of Australia 2009; deWeert 2011; Education and Culture DG & EQF 2013; Guthrie et al., 2011; Hackett et al., 2012), six key issues that would provide the basis for a complete review of performance. The issue headings identified are (1) Labour market (2) Standards and Quality (3) International (4) Credit and RPL (5) Pathways and (6) Responsiveness. The researchers use these issues as the foundation for  a baseline assessment of the AQF with a view to using this baseline to  assess the extent to which new offerings, such as workbased learning, would be likely to lead to improved performance.

Then, drawing on previous workbased learning research and literature (Cairns & Malloch 2011; Costley 2000 & 2011; Costley & Lester, 2012; Costley & Stephenson, n.d.; Garnett 2013; Garnett et al., 2009; Garnett & Young, 2008 & 2009; Cunningham et al., 2004; Portwood & Costley 2000; Roodhouse & Mumford 2010; The Higher Education Academy, 2010) the primary characteristics of workbased learning are mapped against the overall baseline assessment of higher education services,  to determine if and where improvements are likely to be achieved.

Review of Higher Education Services in Australia

As noted above, the contemporary concepts of  lifelong learning and qualifications frameworks   appear to be the foundation for extensive efforts by governments, educators and business to respond to major changes in labour markets. The characteristics and structure of labour markets are changing, in part, because the nature of work is changing.  Work is changing because both the objects and means of production are changing  and because product life cycles have shortened (Australian Workforce and Productivity Agency 2013; Engestrom 2011). As a result, the labour market now requires  more people to have more knowledge skills and it also requires people to change jobs [and to re skill] more often. Andersson et al.,  (2013, p. 406) suggest that –

As a concept, lifelong learning partly replaces former concepts such as adult education (Lindeman, 1926), and lifelong education (Faure, 1972). Lifelong learning has become the dominant manner in which the education and learning of adults is addressed in policy terms.

No longer is it expected that a person’s original training or qualification will be the primary basis of what they do at work over their working life. This is the context within which the  AQF has been developed.  The primary intent of the AQF is usually illustrated as a wheel with equal segments given to each of the  ten levels from leaving high school [Level 1] to the highest academic award [Level 10]  (AQF Council 2013). Such a wheel is sketched in Diagram One below. The thrust of the AQF is directed towards  supporting a student’s journey, through time, around the wheel. All segments are depicted as being equal in size and joined to the next one. Such illustrations convey the impression of a simple, consistent stepwise progression from the lowest level to the highest level of learning.

Diagram One: The Australian Qualifications Framework Wheel

In conjunction with detailed descriptions of the learning, and the learning outcomes, expected at each of the ten levels in the above circle, the AQF also includes several supporting policies that underpin the overall objectives of the framework (AQF Council 2013). The material is comprehensive and framed in the familiar lexicon of QFs developed in jurisdictions throughout the world.  Even so, this does not detract from the essential thrust of the material and it is very clear that the primary objective of the AQF is to enable a learner to progress around the circle on a supported, rewarding, integrated, open  learning journey. This review endeavours to assess the extent to which this is what is actually experienced by students in Australia.

As noted earlier, the framework for this review comprises six key issues[and their related questions] which have been identified from a review of the literature relating to qualifications frameworks. In simple terms, our objective is to  make a broad assessment of how well what is depicted in Diagram One is actually a reflection of the operation of education services in Australia. Our particular focus is on the university sector of higher education because of its preeminent position in providing degree qualifications in this country. The primary issue headings and questions are as follows

1. Labour Market - how are education services linked to the needs of the labour market ?
2. Standards and Quality - is there an integrated system to allow a progressive learning journey for each individual student/learner?
3. International - to what extent is there ‘mobility’ for  students and workers across national boundaries?  
4. Credit and RPL - are different forms of knowledge recognised and can students gain full recognition of their prior achievements as they progress on their learning journey?
5. Pathways - are there multiple connected/integrated ways in which students can gain their learning and qualifications?
6. Responsiveness - are there a variety of education  products to suit varying needs of students with different backgrounds?

Whilst previous reviews and the literature provide a basis for developing these headings/questions, it is also considered that the objectives expressed within the AQF itself provide a good source for framing the review (AQF Council, 2013).

Of the six issues, the last heading of ‘responsiveness’ is probably the least obvious one and it could be argued that the ‘pathways’ heading could cover any issues to be addressed under this additional heading. The inclusion of the ‘responsiveness’ heading within ‘pathways’ could be supported on the basis that implicit in the generic thrust of qualifications frameworks is an expectation of multiple pathways, in order to support the divergent needs and expectations of a diverse student population. However this may not work so well if the evidence indicates that the pathways are less straightforward and fewer in number than desirable.

Consequently, we finally resolved to retain  this sixth heading if for no other reason than to ensure that there was full recognition that at the core of qualifications frameworks was the need for ongoing action and adjustment to changes in social and economic  conditions [particularly by way of changes in the labour market].  As we reviewed developments in regard to Australia’s qualifications frameworks it was difficult not to note the potential for the ‘reform’ agenda of the AQF to be overtaken by a ‘marketing’ agenda that potentially shifts emphasis from driving change in education services to growing business opportunities and maintaining the status quo. Others have noted the scope for qualifcations frameworks to be simply ‘descriptive’ rather than ‘transformational’. It is difficult to avoid the conclusion that Australia is moving more towards a ‘descriptive’ QF as evidenced by the dilution of the  strategic agenda of the Australian Qualifications Council, through its narrowing planning objectives over recent years (AQF Council  2014).

It is possible that, if there is no clear evidence of responsiveness in the AQF to the major issues confronting the community and its economy, then its policy life cycle is likely to be more short lived than anticipated. Of course it would not be the first policy agenda to be neutered by key stakeholders with opposing interests. Australia’s federated system of government and the shared responsibilities between State and Commonwealth for education certainly make reform problematic. Add to that, a university sector made up of a relatively small number of  semi autonomous authorities with prime carriage for  delivering bachelor awards and with relatively daunting barriers to new entrants: the scope for the watering down of reforms [like the AQF] is not remote. It is against this background that we consider each of the six headings in turn and conclude with a summary ‘answer’ to each issue/question.

Labour Market

For some years now, the Australian Government has been forecasting and incentivising the system, to achieve a significant increase in degree qualified workers (Norton, 2013). From a review of information about enrolments and entry requirements, it appears that the  primary  strategy being employed by the university sector in Australia [to increase graduands of bachelor awards] is to lower entry standards for school leavers (Bradley et al., 2008; Commonwealth of Australia 2009; Marginson & Considine  2000; Norton 2013; Watson et al., 2013). Further, whilst numbers of learners who are able to gain entry to undergraduate degree programs are uncapped and whilst the national government’s funding scheme does not disadvantage anyone for failure rates, this is most likely to be the continuing strategy of choice for universities. However, there are some doubts as to the sustainability of this current approach to continue to deliver the longer term expansion in degree qualified workers (Australian Workforce and Productivity Agency 2013; deWeert 2011; Norton 2013; Ulicna et al., 2011). The National Workforce Development Strategy (2013, p. 10) suggests that Australian governments will need to support the achievement of a minimum annual growth of 3 per cent in tertiary enrolments in order to keep pace with this shift.

At the same time there are important efforts especially by some ‘dual’ sector universities [which provide both vocational education and training [VET] as well as university degrees] to increase opportunities for a broader range of students [not just school leavers] to progress towards their bachelor degrees. However, based on recent research (Moodie et al., 2013; Watson et al., 2013) it is not clear yet if this is likely to have a significant impact on the overall outcome, nationally. This is because the majority of universities continue to focus on the ‘standard’ degree offering, pitched at school leavers, and because -

• it seems unlikely entry standards can go any lower
• budgetary pressures may cause some tightening in financial incentives for both students and universities.

There has been a suggestion that more flexible education offerings by new private entrants [and joint ventures] will provide the boost in the ongoing strategy to achieve the labour markets needs (deWeert 2011)]. That Australia is dependent primarily on the public university sector to respond to the labour market’s growing demand for professional bachelor’s degree qualified people is currently a significant medium to long term risk. Especially given the absence of any clear strategies to respond and deal with the emergent market place.

In regard to the need to expand  the uptake of those from  lower socio economic backgrounds, there appear to be a number of ‘pilot’ and other related projects being undertaken at some universities but it is not clear yet whether any material, long term progress is being made (NCSEHE, 2013). The need for a focus on this segment of the student market, appears to arise, at least in  part, from evidence that suggests that Australia’s labour market is, like other developed countries moving from an egg shaped profile [fat in the middle] to an hourglass profile [skinny in the middle and fat at the top and bottom of the profile] (Australian Workforce and Productivity Agency 2013). The emergence of this hour glass profile places significant pressure on governments in Australia to ensure that  not only are education services able to respond to the top end professional market, but to ensure that there are pathways available from the bottom to the top of the hour glass. The Australian universities appear to be happy ‘feeding’ on the top of the hour glass and are content to leave it to others to expand  the ‘skinny’ pathway between the top and the bottom.

Quality and Standards

To continue with the hour glass profile, it could be applied to the operation of higher education services  in Australia. At one end of the hour glass is the VET sector and at the other, the university sector. The other aspect about an hour glass profile that accords with Australia’s higher education services is the very skinny ‘neck’ that joins the two ends. This is analogous to the low percentage of vocationally educated students that move [or flow through] to the university end (Harris et al., 2006; Watson et al., 2013; Wheelahan 2009). And further, and we think remarkably, the  same hour glass profile can be used to characterise the demarcation between the regulators of quality and standards of higher  education in Australia.

Two separate agencies with different approaches are responsible for regulating these two parts of the market. Tertiary Education Quality Standards Agency [TEQSA] is responsible for the university part and Australian Skills Quality Authority [AQSA] for the VET part. Up to the mid levels in the AQF,  students encounter a vocational competency based environment with registered training organisations. For the higher levels, they need to deal with the discipline centric merit environment of the universities. It is as if the ‘system’ has been designed to purposefully   compound the difficulties [in moving from one end of the hour glass to the other] by having separate regulators and regulations. The narrow neck in the middle of the hour glass appears to be ‘no mans’ land and the advocacy, regulation and performance orientation necessary to make the skinny neck wider does not seem to sit clearly with either party. Oversight of the whole higher education services ‘hour glass’ sits with The Australian Qualifications Council but there is no evidence of any particular  focus on the narrow neck of the hourglass - be it through either research effort or performance evaluation.

This failure of governance ‘design’ significantly inhibits the flow of students from one sector to another and fails to recognise the vocational learner as a major source for building  the professionalisation required by the community and the economy. It is a significant impediment to the effective development of Australia’s education services. The tension between the two sectors is long standing and over time, professional associations have put substantial importance on which sector was best placed to  provide the professional education for their members. Goozee (2001, p.8) notes that -

…in the 1890s and early 1900s there was constant friction between Sydney Technical College and Sydney University over who should offer what course. The perceived need to upgrade the status of a profession in the eyes of the community, by requiring a degree as the entry criterion, has not only under-valued TAFE credentials but has also exacerbated the difficulties TAFE has had in creating and maintaining a clear identity”.

This tension is still relevant more than a century later; however, some higher education institutions [especially those offering both ‘VET’ and ‘university’ education services] are moving to build a more integrated educational pathway for students and have indicated that significant improvements in ‘transfer’ rates are achievable (Watson et al., 2013). This is reinforced by European experience showing potential rates of transfer of 50% (CEDEFOP and EQF 2013) when currently, the Australian system works at 10% transfer from the VET sector to the university sector (Watson et al., 2013). Unfortunately the higher transfer rates in particular  settings are  being swamped by the  much bigger impact of those universities that see little value in improving such transfer rates. The differences between VET and university in Australia are deep seated and long standing and it appears that the major universities are disinclined [because of their success under the circumstances outlined above] to explore more flexible, responsive education services. The continuation of a bifurcated governance arrangement for  higher education services not only inhibits the scope for opening a valuable pathway towards workforce professionalisation, but  provides an opportunity [as a consequence of different rules and regulations for different parts of the system]  for the continuation of sub optimal practices in relation to credit and RPL. This latter issue is covered in more detailed below.

International

An important outcome expected of qualifications frameworks is to contribute to the mobility of both students and workers across national boundaries. National economies seeking to build their  productivity invariably encounter skills shortages at times within the business cycle. Within the context of national immigration and employment policies, national governments are therefore motivated to ensure that they can ‘recruit’ foreign workers to fill skill shortages in their local labour markets.  

For this to be achieved, it means that -

• The AQF must be in sync with other qualifications frameworks
• The system needs to operate effectively to allow both students and workers to live in Australia and fulfill their educational and or employment aspirations.

In relation to the  first  point above, reviews have confirmed that there are sufficient commonalities, between Australia’s qualifications frameworks and the frameworks in other jurisdictions, to support the level of flexibility and mobility expected by all parties (Burke et al., 2009; Misko et al., 2007; Ulicna et al., 2011). In fact Ulicna et al., note in looking at the AQF and the EQF that there is a ‘significant degree of correspondence between these two different frameworks in terms of their underlying conceptual bases, definitions of terminology and general approaches to the recognition of learning achievement (Ulicna et al., 2011, p.18). In relation to the second point, that goes to the issue of mobility, the success of education service providers in Australia in providing bachelor, master and doctoral degrees to international students is clear and is a reflection of the standards and quality of this traditional academic pathway for delivering higher education. It is interesting to note the differences in ‘international’ demands for education services compared to domestic markets. UNESCO (in Ulcina et al., p. 34) notes that -

• only 9% of mobile students enrol in occupationally oriented types of studies (while 34% of local students in host countries are enrolled in such studies);
• 44% of mobile students enrol in bachelor degree programmes;
• 40% enrol in master’s degree programmes (compared to 7% of local students in host countries);
• 7% enrol in research programmes such as PhD (while only 3% of local students are enrolled in these types of programmes in host countries).

The complementary nature of the international market with the domestic market for Australian universities is clear and material. Therefore an AQF that supports  international recognition and transfer, offers  great benefits for Australian universities and adds weight to the AQF being a very effective marketing mechanism for selling the benefits of degree qualifications from Australian universities. The extent to which this accords with the notion of the same qualifications framework being used as a mechanism for reform inside the Australian education system is of course a very different issue and is picked up later in this paper.

Moving from students to workers, Ulicna et al., (2011, p.44)  note that in regard to skilled migration into Australia that it ‘is a managed process, geared to meeting the areas of specific demand in the labour market; not surprisingly, this results in high levels of success in finding work by skilled migrants’. The report goes on to note that that while traditional sources (New Zealand and UK) continue to supply Australian immigration needs, there is a significant and growing supply from China, India and other Asian countries. This trend should be interpreted alongside the rapid growth in mobile student numbers from these countries into the Australian education system – these students will acquire Australian qualifications that will enable them to compete strongly for skilled migration places in the future.

As it stands, more than two thirds of those workers recruited to Australia [as part of the skilled immigration program] have bachelor degrees or higher. Mechanisms that assists in the qualifications recognition process, such as the AQF,  are a valuable asset for both the holder [in approaching Australian immigration as a skilled migrant applicant] and for the receiving nation [in filling a gap in the labour market, not provided by the receiving country’s own system]. Recognition that the AQF can contribute as a ‘back up’ to the domestic program for professionalising the workforce, through its role in supporting and enhancing skilled migration, be it either through the attraction of students [who later become workers] or through workers [whose qualifications are recognised]  is a significant plus for adopting such an education services policy. However, this beneficial impact is not a sufficient reason for simply seeing the AQF as a  national marketing tool for supporting our education industry. It would be counterproductive to its primary intent if the AQFs  role in supporting the attraction of skilled  migrant workers [to fill local skills shortages]  was a reason for not making important changes to improve Australia’s higher education services. The primary objective must be to ensure that Australia is able to fill most of its own needs for skilled workers, through its own domestic professionalisation of the workforce.

Credit and RPL

Andersson et al., (2013, p. 407- 408) contend that  articulation, credit transfer and RPL are important mechanisms for giving effect to the lifelong learning discourse and that it does so ‘by a shift in focus from education to learning’. They include learning in and through venues such as the workplace, family life, leisure time, the media, crime prevention and health promotion as part of the ‘focus’. Pitman and Vidovich (2013) suggest that lifelong learning is a cyclical process where the learner brings prior learning into a new environment with the aim of upgrading that learning. As part of this process, ideally, universities would operate as both ‘mobilisers and producers’ of knowledge (Pitman and Broomhall in Pitman and Vidovich 2013, p. 513).

Qualifications frameworks are generally directed towards an approach that is sympathetic to these perspectives and the AQF is no exception. The experience  for students [who  do not fit the traditional academic pathway] at universities in Australia however, is generally not consistent with these overarching principles [even though those universities’ policies comply with the AQF].  That there is such clear evidence to support this view, from multiple sources (Guthrie et al., 2011; Harris et al., 2006;   Misko et al., 2007; Pitman, 2014; Pitman and Vidovich, 2013 Watson et al., 2013) is a challenge to the putative achievements of  the AQF.

Clearly universities see little or no value in investing in the work needed to implement an approach to RPL that would support the principles of the AQF. Pitman and Vidovich (2013, p. 513) crystallise the situation as follows-

If prior learning is viewed as a threat to a university’s position within the field of higher education, it is not surprising that it will enact RPL policy in order to restrict knowledge acquired via non-traditional learning processes. Even when these types of prior learning are viewed, per se, as having value, the primary purpose of RPL policy will still be to serve the interests of the institution, not the student. Thus, knowledge is mobilised not for its epistemological value, but for its strategic, organisational value.

Diedrich (2013, p. 509) reiterates this perspective using the concept of ‘capital’ to highlight the result for students who do not fulfill the universities traditional academic needs-

In contrast to the ‘traditional’ student who converts high school academic capital into university academic capital, the vocational student must first convert economic capital into VET academic capital and then into university academic capital. At each stage the conversion process is not entire, meaning that the more steps involved in conversion, the less academic capital is ultimately acquired via RPL

The disadvantage also applies to those who have invested in their workplace knowledge-

There is a  large body of literature argues that it is unequal power relations of  the traditional university’s monopoly of a form of knowledge production that privileges individualised and rationalist ways of knowing over collective and contextualised knowledge practices (Michelson, 1996, 2006), that act to block access via RPL.   Armsby, Costley, and Garnett (2006) argue that difficulties in implementing RPL are (in part at least) brought about by the challenge this practice brings to the university’s traditional monopoly of knowledge, (Diedrich 2013, p. 567-568)

In what is now a dated report [but we have found it difficult to get more recent information on this issue], Misko et al., (2007, p. 116-119) note that RPL for higher education students appears to be contracting -

In 2001, 3.6 per cent of Bachelor degree students had obtained recognition for non-formal learning; by 2005 this had reduced to 2.7 per cent. Similarly, where 8.2 per cent of postgraduate students had received RPL in 2001, this had reduced to 5.1 per cent in 2005.

All of this points towards a significant disjoint between the aspirations of the AQF and the actions of the Australian universities. In this regard, Misko et al., (2007)  note that there are innumerable barriers to RPL in the everyday work settings of university lecturers. Not the least of which is the amount of work and effort involved in speaking with students about their applications, helping them to identify the types of evidence that would be suitable and validating and verifying the evidence once it has been provided. Sometimes this is not reflected or recognised adequately in workloads for teachers, and in recouping the actual costs associated with RPL. Unless groups of students have followed a standard pathway and are claiming a similar amount of credit for similar sorts of activities, each application for credit must be treated on an individual basis. They go on to note that universities are not in the practice of applying appropriate resources and costs to the RPL process and seem disinclined to treat it as a normal assessment process.

The material set out above seems incongruent with the aspirations underpinning the AQF and at odds with the fact that Australian universities are generally moving to full compliance with the AQF. The reason for this is that the primary requirement in the AQF, about RPL, is that universities have a clear, published policy on RPL. There are no clear prescriptions about what is actually in a particular university’s policy. Further, that RPL is only mentioned in the glossary of terms in the AQF brings to light the substantial inertia within university administrations to embrace measures that would require their institutions to become more flexible and responsive in their service offerings. To open the door too widely to students who have not followed a traditional, academic learning journey would potentially cause them to develop new more flexible education services. At the present time, the incentives for succeeding in delivering both domestic and international ‘standard’ awards  for those students on the traditional academic pathway are sufficiently high that spending time and effort on alternative, more flexible  offerings is simply not warranted. That such an implementation may require substantial reform and may involve multiple levels of resistance is picked up later in this paper.

Pathways

Pathways is a term which  is frequently used in education, and along with lifelong learning, is a key underpinning notion within qualifications framework literature and practice (Wheelahan  2009, p.6). To achieve lifelong learning there is necessarily a journey [towards the learning outcomes] and an individual’s pathway may be relatively smooth, open and accessible, or it may be otherwise. From an education perspective, the characteristics of the pathway comprise multiple elements - the subjects and courses that are studied; the amount of credit received for these courses; the extent to which RPL has been included to facilitate another step on the journey; the extent to which courses or programs in the area the student is interested, are available to them and so on. It is clear that there are numerous elements of the education economy that synthesise to make the pathway either a clear open and smooth one or  a misty, rocky, narrow one.

It appears that in the education economy, pathways are designed to achieve two purposes. The first is to make the education economy work effectively and efficiently so as to accord with the operation of  the nation’s economy. The overall economy, via the labour market, requires easy, efficient and timely movement of workers and students between different jobs. Recall the ‘hour glass’ profile of Australia’s labour market referenced earlier; an efficient system would have a ‘wide neck’ between the two ends of the system. However, the ‘hour glass’ also  highlights the second purpose for pathways and this is often covered by the term ‘equity’-  ‘Pathways aim to provide opportunities for disadvantaged groups in society by mediating access to higher levels of education with appropriate credit for prior studies (OECD 1998; Raffe 1998; Young 2001 in Wheelahan 2009, p.6). Again, the neck of the hour glass would be a thick one if the system was serving its equity purposes.

A recent study of patterns of movements in the Australian education system  both within and  across fields of study  says

What was found were not linear and seamless pathways, but rather ‘stepping stones, zig zags or lurches’—crazy paving or stepping stones. These were overlaid with a range of barriers along the learning journey, including finance, juggling work, other commitments, transportation and institutional location, as well as a range of other personal and provider issues  (Harris et al., 2006, p.7).

Australia’s 2013 National Workforce Development Strategy (Australian Workforce and Productivity Agency 2013, p. 76) notes that  

To meet future demand for high level qualifications and skills and to maximise opportunities for students progression the VET and higher education sectors needs further simplification. The move to a more integrated tertiary sector is agreed national policy but hurdles and barriers persist.  

This is well illustrated by a detailed study undertaken by Watson et al., (2013, p.10) into student movements in engineering between VET and universities. They identify three clusters of universities and  arrive at the following findings -

Finally, the low rates of admission of VET award holders in Cluster 3 universities could be exacerbating national skills shortages in occupations where these universities are the dominant providers. In the field of engineering, for example, the 14 universities in Cluster 3 account for well over half of all undergraduate commencements; yet, these institutions admit only 3.3% of students on the basis of a VET award. In contrast, the Cluster 1 universities, which enrol one-fifth of all undergraduate commencing students in engineering, admit over 17% on the basis of a VET award and universities in Cluster 2 (which account for one-quarter of all engineering undergraduate commencements) admit over 10% of engineering students on the basis of a VET award. To the extent that the creation of strong VET to higher education pathways serves to increase the output of higher education graduates, the high enrolment share of Cluster 3 universities in fields experiencing national skills shortages, such as engineering, should be of concern to governments, industry and employers.

There is clear evidence from this research that  some universities are working actively to develop clearer, smoother, open pathways for students. However, as is also demonstrated by this research, for many universities the incentives of gaining a significant share of students on the traditional pathway far outway the broader benefits of making the system easier to navigate for those students on a slightly, less formal or academic pathway.  However, the concept of pathways in education implies not only a clear and open way of progressing but because it is generally expressed as a plural noun, it infers the need to create more than ‘one way’ to a destination. In education, creating multiple pathways  may involve responding to students with different needs - these different needs  may arise because of socio economic background, cultural or ethnic background, learning style, current work and life style, personal expectations and aspirations and so on.

However, our analysis indicates that the public university sector in Australia has a focus on one pathway - it starts with school leavers who meet the entrance qualifications for undergraduate awards and then may progress  [for those who have completed the preceding part of the journey] to postgraduate studies. This pathway involves studies in a prescribed discipline and may be part or full time and may be on campus or online or distance. This is more a ‘highway’ than a pathway and dwarfs other pathways provided by  Australian public universities. International students with traditional academic qualifications are  also accommodated on this highway.  For those students who have gone to work without meeting entrance requirements, or gone to VET or for mature age students who have been involved in work for many years and for many other different situations, the visibility and availability of appropriate alternative pathways is low - there are  several ‘alleys’ and ‘lanes’  usually paved with ‘crazy paving or stepping stones’.

Responsiveness

Research indicates that universities [not specifically Australian universities] are not noted for being responsive to changing student, community or government needs. It is therefore very surprising to consider how quickly key players in the university sector have responded to the notion of MOOCs - massive open online courses. The Grattan Institute’s 2013 Review of Australian Universities suggests that ‘the biggest story in higher education during 2012 was the rise of MOOCs’ (Norton, 2013, p.21). The report goes on to explain that  MOOCs comprise subjects which are offered online for free, often with no entry requirements and with assessment offered via online tests or peer review from other students. It appears that these MOOCs generate little or no revenue. It appears that  few can envisage how MOOCs will play out; however, what does appear to be clear is that there are substantial opportunities for those service providers providing the platforms for these ventures and that this may lead to other services opportunities within the university sector. It follows that these ‘MOOC’ universities are sufficiently confident about their futures and have access to sufficient capital to invest in what could only be described as a risky venture i.e. with no apparent ‘business case’ and little likelihood of substantial returns to their key stakeholders.

Whilst it remains unclear what ‘problem’ or ‘issue’ the MOOCs are seeking to address, there are innumerable, less contentious initiatives across universities in relation to improved approaches to learning and teaching that are highly aligned with the AQF and its principles. These initiatives include- a. work integrated learning b. work based learning c. problem based learning d. the flipped classroom d. research centred learning  and e. transdisciplinary learning. Also, there are initiatives aimed at responding to disadvantage and expanding access to tertiary education- all of which are well intentioned, legitimate efforts to be responsive to changes in the world in which universities are operating. We have  identified a common theme that unites such initiatives - how hard it is to achieve material progress and change at a whole of enterprise level, let alone at a whole of sector level.  The experiences of one academic in one of these undertakings provides valuable insights into the depth and breadth of this difficulty (Emslie, n.d.). It appears that whilst university leaders agree and support these initiatives, there is a reluctance to provide sufficient leadership and appropriate support [both policy and operational] to achieve a sustainable, enterprise  wide commitment to the reform. Maybe just enough resources to demonstrate interest [and rebuff criticism] but not enough to make a real difference?

This evidence, in relation to these many worthwhile initiatives,therefore makes the willingness of some Australian [and numerous international] universities to put their knowledge ‘content’ online [through MOOCs] and in many cases for free, even more surprising.

How could this be so, when in so many other areas [as noted earlier] there is a reputation for non responsiveness or at least tardiness? Could it be that universities are struggling and non responsive when changes may require them to recast or revise  their role and relationship in regard to both course content and students but that if their role and relationship is not in question then they are open to considering large scale change? The traditional role of a university has been to hire intelligent people who develop interesting and ingenious courses who then teach students these courses. Under these circumstances the university controls the content and delivers the material to the student and assesses the student’s ability to acquire the provided ‘knowledge’. With this in view many people who work at universities have studied with the aim of being one of the experts who deliver ‘knowledge’ to students. Whether the material is delivered to a student online or in a lecture theatre or in a distance learning handbook the academic model is the same. So, whether it was a 1950s  lecture hall or a 2014 MOOC the academic model is relatively in tact. Does the ‘intactness’ of the conventional academic model determine the level of responsiveness by universities?

From our analysis it appears that university responsiveness depends on the context. In responding to the substantial increase in student intake the higher education sector has succeeded. As noted earlier, by taking an existing pathway  and simply expanding it  to take more ‘traffic’ we have seen a very considerable and laudable increase in undergraduate student numbers. It appears that universities are comfortable in responding to changes if the student satisfies formal education standards and the university can deliver the program through a standard ‘lecture’ style - be it online, distance or MOOC.  If however, the response involves a change to this model then whether it is being prompted by industry, government or students, it is less likely to be supported by the public university sector.

This could well be an underlying reason why some authorities have  anticipated a role for  private entities and new structures in responding to the need for more and  different pathways for higher education students in the future(Ulicna et al., 2011, p.16). The report goes on to note there is a significant challenge to

create structures that also cater for the needs of mature-aged students and students who have not had a conventional pathway to higher education. These students may require tailored support and more flexible delivery options and it is likely that a significant proportion of the sector’s future growth may be in newer, privately funded providers which will operate alongside the established institutions that receive public funding.

It remains to be seen however, how far existing universities will remain focused on their primary learning ‘highway’ if other more flexible and responsive players move into the education marketplace. Non University Higher Education Providers [NUHEP] enrolled approximately 47,500 full-time [equivalent] students in 2011- approximately 5.4 per cent of the total number of reported higher education students in that year  (Norton  2013, p.12). This reflected significant growth over previous years and is an indication of the apparent willingness of the university sector to avoid too many deviations from its preferred pathway.

Summary

This review started with a series of questions regarding key elements of the Australian education system. The foregoing analysis provides the basis for preliminary ‘answers’ to those questions and these summary answers are listed below. They are preliminary because any such broad ranging desk review can only be undertaken iteratively, given the myriad dimensions and multiple layers of implementation associated with the AQF. In considering the answers below, it is important to  reiterate, that the focus of both the questions and answers is the university sector of higher education services in Australia.

Q. Labour Market - how are education services linked to the needs of the labour market?

A. Universities have generally responded positively to expand enrolments and graduates. Also, the mechanisms installed by the national government in relation to (1) demand driven funding model (2) uncapped numbers and (3) student loan scheme, have made the process relatively attractive for universities. The major strategy appears to be based on lowering entrance standards for school leavers. There are potential sustainability issues associated with this current approach and its seems unlikely that the existing strategies will achieve the longer run goal in regard to professionalisation of the workforce.

Q. Standards and Quality - is there an integrated system to allow a progressive learning journey for each individual student/learner?

A. That the provision of higher education services is split in two by two different sectors for delivery and that this ‘split’ is matched with a like split in standards and quality  regulation is a substantial failure of governance design and represents a long term flaw in Australia’s higher education services system. The university sector appears to be generally comfortable with this flaw and inspite of the ‘overarching’ principles contained in the AQF regarding lifelong learning and related issues, has not moved significantly away from its formal academic perspective and traditional lecture style delivery.

Q. International - to what extent is there ‘mobility’ for  students and workers across national boundaries?

A. The AQF is well aligned with other QFs and there are clear and high levels of both student and worker mobility. The current market suits the university sector’s formal academic orientation and traditional delivery and in fact the success of the approach to  the migration of skilled workers provides a ‘back up’ to shortfalls in the provision of education services domestically.This constitutes a ‘win win’ for the university sector and reduces the likelihood of significant initiatives to improve pathways and responsiveness.

Q.Credit and RPL - are different forms of knowledge recognised and can students gain full recognition of their prior achievements as they progress on their learning journey?

A. The overall approach of the Australian university sector is inadequate, complicated and generally inconsistent with the primary principles of lifelong learning. The universities  are clearly disinclined to open up more flexible pathways through a more contemporary interpretation of prior learning. The current success of the traditional academic approach and the level of system incentives are effective disincentives for improvement in this area.

Q. Pathways - are there multiple connected/integrated ways in which students can gain their learning and qualifications?

A. The Australian public university sector is capable of providing a single pathway based on its traditional academic perspective and delivery. At this stage it  appears that other, alternative pathways, will only be more fully developed by alternative providers.

Q. Responsiveness - are there a variety of education  products to suit varying needs of students with different needs?

A. The Australian public universities are responsive to students who ‘fit the university’ but otherwise seem disinclined to look seriously at alternative education program offerings that change the universities role and relationship with its content and its students.

In summary based on our findings, as well as the analysis of several much larger reviews, it appears that whilst the AQF has been implemented [and this in itself is progress] the achievements [towards reform in higher education services] don’t go much beyond that; however, the achievements in consolidating the market standing of the universities, both domestically and internationally are noteworthy.  The implementation  has not made a lot of difference to the navigability of  learning pathways for students seeking a university degree [armed with a non conventional learning background] and it appears that the focus for the AQF has moved from using a qualifications framework to achieve reform to using a qualifications framework to market education services both internally and externally. Of course, qualifications frameworks  in other parts of the world suffer the same issue - in that they actually can be used to mask underlying inconsistencies and limitations. Important examples of this in Australia are provided by the operation of RPL, the limited availability of genuinely different pathways and the design of the regulatory framework.

Higher education is a significant part of the Australian economy. In 2011, universities had revenue of $23.8 billion (Norton 2013, p. 38). Australian universities have clearly developed the capacity to respond, in broad terms, to the challenges confronting a knowledge based, ‘hourglass’ shaped labour market; however,  existing approaches whilst not broken are coming under pressure. In light of this analysis, the following diagram [Diagram Two] summarises what is regarded as a realistic perspective of the AQF ‘wheel’ at it current level of implementation. Diagram Two is to be contrasted with the ‘whole’ circle illustrated earlier in Diagram One. The diagram below illustrates a bifurcated AQF with separate parts residing  in the opposite ends of a stylised ‘hour glass’.  In this hour glass the vocational segments sit in the top part of the hour glass and the university segments reside in the bottom part of the hour glass.

Diagram Two: The Bifuracted Australian Qualifications Framework

It is important to note that  the ‘neck’ between the two parts of the education hour glass is very narrow and the journey for those  students  who move between the two ‘extremes’ is not an easy one. Ironically, given what has been said, this depiction of the hour glass necessarily has the vocational segments on top [given that the ‘flow’ is intended to be from this  sector to the undergraduate and postgraduate segments at the bottom of the hour glass]. Our assessment is that the hour glass is a reasonable depiction of higher education services in Australia at present. What is very important is the size of the ‘neck’ between the two ends of the hour glass.

Also, what is not yet clear is whether the Australian government will become more prescriptive or more market oriented to seek to overcome these current shortcomings, if and when they more clearly emerge. Given the approach of both major political parties in Australia, it is more likely to be a continued, inevitable move to the market to resolve service prioritisation. In which case, we would anticipate a hardening of the university line to service its ‘core’ market’ and the progressive development of alternative pathways by alternative providers. However, this is only conjecture based on the information available  to date and at this stage there are only relatively small examples of these alternative providers.

With this in view, it is appropriate to move to a review of one of the aforementioned alternative pathways. Workbased learning is a potential alternative  pathway and at the moment is sufficiently unconventional that it can only be accessed at one Australian  university and also through international providers. Based on the earlier discussion about the emphasis in Australia on a traditional  academically oriented lecture style delivery, workbased learning appears to be one of the more radical alternative pathways because it changes not only the delicate power relationships between universities and the content they deliver but also changes the role and capability of the lecturer/mentor. The next section looks at this alternative more closely.

Characteristics of WBL

Introduction

The characteristics of WBL will be explored by using the same questions[used above to assess  higher education services in Australia] simply by replacing ‘education services’ with ‘workbased learning’ in each of the questions. This provides a good opportunity to both explain some key characteristics of workbased learning at the same time as identifying the points where this pathway could make a material improvement to education services in Australia.

The revised set of questions then becomes-

Labour Market - how is work based learning  linked to the needs of the labour market ?

Standards and Quality - is there an integrated system to allow a progressive learning journey for each individual student/learner using workbased learning?

International - to what extent is there ‘mobility’ for  students and workers across national boundaries who have undertaken workbased learning?  

Credit and RPL - are different forms of knowledge recognised and can students gain full recognition of their prior achievements as they progress on their learning journey using workbased learning

Pathways - are there multiple connected/integrated ways in which students can gain their learning and qualifications using workbased learning?

Responsiveness - does workbased learning provide a variety of education  products to suit varying needs of students with different backgrounds?

Labour Market  

The curriculum of a workbased learning award is built upon and around the learning agreement, established through a process of resolution between the university, the student and the student’s employer (Garnett, 2000). Learning objectives are established for each student and these are intended to reflect a consensus of the parties. The common ground that reflects this consensus means that the curriculum is not borne out of a particular disciplinary perspective, nor is borne out of a predefined vocational or professional prescription (Portwood 2000; Portwood and Costley 2000). This means that workbased learning sits in a rather unique direct relationship between the workplace [and its needs] and the student’s personal and professional aspirations. Therefore, unlike conventional vocational or disciplinary courses/programs, it is not separate to or outside the labour market. It is, to a large degree, embedded in it. Consequently, it is considered that the risks, associated with conventional programs [in that they sit outside the labour market], are much reduced through a workbased learning approach.

Standards and Quality   

The philosophy of workbased learning is to recognise a broad range of learning and learning experiences but at the same time, no diminution in the standards and quality [relative to  traditional, academically-centric programs] is countenanced (Brodie & Irving 2012; Doncaster 2000; Garnett 2010). There is no requirement to adjust any of the  standards set out in qualifications frameworks and this is well evidenced by the accreditation of workbased learning programs across the UK and to a much lesser extent [by virtue of the limited number of such programs being offered] in Australia.

In fact the standards and quality of workbased learning are applied in an integrated manner to experiential learning and academic learning and, in so doing, ensuring that all forms [of learning] are dealt with in the same comprehensive manner. In this way the risks associated with the unstructured approach to different types of learning [evident in the current diverse and at times unstructured and unfunded approaches to RPL in Australian universities] are thus avoided. The epistemological and pedagogical justification for workbased learning are now well established in universities (Costley 2000; Garnett and Young 2008 & 2009; Garnett and Workman 2009; Kennedy 2000; Portwood 2000). The primary issues for quality and standards in Australian universities revolve  around the current ad hoc, university by university, department by department interpretation of different forms of learning.

International  

It is clear that because the standards and quality of workbased learning operate within the overall existing qualifications frameworks in place in those jurisdictions where there are these two elements in place - QF and workbased learning, then the mobility issue is no different to any other award in those jurisdictions.

Credit and RPL  

As noted above, workbased learning brings all credit and RPL considerations into a structured, formalised and financially  sustainable environment. It is testimony to the enormous financial rewards accruing to Australian universities for their core academic programs that they have not recognised the further organisational and financial benefits to them in adopting the philosophy and structure of workbased learning. As set out in the literature (Armsby 2000; Armsby and Costley 2000; Ball and Manwaring, 2010; Costley & Armsby 2007; Costley et al., 2010; Cunningham et al., 2004), the structure of workbased learning is simple, with a focus on three primary elements - (1) review of learning and claims for recognition of past learning [incorporating academic and experiential learning] (2) development of learning plan incorporating learning objectives and a preferred award title that encapsulates the thrust of the qualifications sought and (3) workbased projects that provide the opportunity for and evidencing of learning to achieve the student’s desired learning outcomes.

Pathways  

Unlike the majority of learning pathways offered by Australian universities, workbased learning offers a customised pathway for each student. To the extent that the structure set out above is the basis for all workbased learning awards and is more or less a ‘given’, this ‘framework’ enables a student to pursue multiple pathways to achieve their learning objectives. This may involve elements of course work as required but also involves completely individualised project plans that plot the course of the student’s learning journey. The way of achieving the learning is via the medium of the workbased projects but this may involve the student in multiple roles, in multiple settings and seeking to achieving divergent outcomes. The outcomes of this learning may be a new product or an improved way of doing a particular activity or project at work. In any event, the artefacts for assessment may be presented in a variety of ways consistent with the student’s learning outcomes. All these divergent approaches are subjected to assessment in ways consistent with all university programs and in line with the qualifications framework for that jurisdiction.  The scaffolding of the workbased learning program provides a multiplicity of in-built pathways.

Responsiveness

The responsiveness of workbased learning begins with the philosophy and orientation of the program to site ‘beside’ the student, and in so doing, facing the world with them. This is the model championed by  the early twentieth century educationalist,  philosopher John Dewey  and is the basis for the workbased learning tutor assisting the learner in understanding and explaining the learning they are seeking (Elkjaer 2008; Lester 2004; McKernan 2007). Without having a predetermined set of knowledge facts to deliver to the student, the workbased learning tutor is able to respond to the circumstances seeking to be explored by the student and to advise the student  on the way forward; on ways and means of handling the situation and in coming to terms with an environment where the learner is undertaking work in areas that have not been codified to the extent needed by the learner and their organisation.

It is the essence of this ‘responsiveness’ that we have noted, causes the hesitation on the part of some practising academics to entertain the practise of workbased learning. It is the necessity for this responsiveness that we contend is causing  senior university administrators to avoid such flexible, hand crafted solutions. There is a definite shift, implicit in workbased learning, in relation to the power relations between student and adviser. Our observation is that universities have many staff who are not well experienced in workplaces outside of education and, further, with the ‘casualisation’ of the university workforce (Halcomb et al., 2010), many staff who are responsible for the delivery of standard ‘content’ driven programs are contracted to deliver fixed, existing, content based programs. Under these circumstances and with the advantages of very large ‘cohorts’ in popular subjects this ‘cookie cutter’ method for higher education delivery offers substantial profitability under existing government funding arrangements.

Summary of WBL Key Characteristics

From the brief review above, it can be seen that workbased learning has the potential to improve results in 5 of the 6 areas reviewed in this study. The reasons for this go to the heart of  the what makes contemporary workbased learning an important reform mechanism for university education. Workbased learning -

• connects the university into the workplace and builds the curriculum around what knowledge and learning is valued and needed by  individuals and their workplaces
• puts equal value on accredited learning no matter its source or origin
• has an established pedagogy which aligns with existing qualifications  frameworks so that it contributes to international [student and worker] mobility and conforms with established quality and regulatory requirements
• provides a multiplicity of learning pathways and responsiveness by virtue of a simple structure and it provides the opportunity for the teacher/tutor to ‘sit beside’ the student as they confront the issues and problems which are important to each student and their workplaces.

Given this, it is apparent that  a  broader implementation of workbased learning has the potential to create a much ‘wider neck’ in the hour glass which we have used to characterise higher education services in Australia. This ‘wider neck’ is illustrated in Part One of Diagram Three below and is intended to represent a larger flow of students from experiential and vocational backgrounds into undergraduate programs. The 2013 National Workforce Development Strategy  reiterates just how skinny this ‘neck’ currently is – in  2010 78% of students with a  prior VET  qualification were not given any credit on entry to university (Australian Workforce and Productivity Agency, 2013). Workbased learning is a well established university approach to learning and teaching and provides an integrated method for assessing all types of prior learning.

Over time, a wider implementation of workbased learning could even contribute to building a single, ‘connected’ wheel of learning similar to the currently hypothesised one illustrated in Diagram One above. The academic foundations of workbased learning are now well established and, with sufficient interest in and application of workbased learning, the AQF wheel could be reconnected by the  incorporation of workbased learning between each of its segments. This reconnection is illustrated in Part Two of the Diagram Three below, with an element of workbased learning being able to contribute between all levels in the qualifications framework.

Diagram Three: The evolutionary development of the Australian Qualifications Framework with the benefit of increased levels of workbased learning.

In  considering the two parts of the above diagram, it is important to recognise that  workbased learning is only being presented as ‘a’ pathway and that a vibrant, sustainable education services environment will strongly support multiple, diverse pathways. The dominant, existing ‘academic-centric’ pathway  provides excellent opportunities for many learners. This is because content driven, discipline/vocational  centric programs are highly efficient and widely understood and accepted. However, those students who don’t ‘fit’ this dominant pathway are less likely to progress and thereby, a signficiant opportunity for expanding our workforce skills is lost. The conclusion will now bring to a head our findings from this preliminary review of higher education services and the associated review of workbased learning.

Conclusion

This study arises from the confluence of three important areas of enquiry - (1) notions of lifelong learning (2) education policy approaches such as qualifications frameworks [QFs] and (3) workbased learning. The objective of this review was to assess the extent to which workbased learning could potentially  improve higher education services in Australia. To do this, a desk review of higher education services in Australia was undertaken [using key elements of the AQF as a basis for the review] and areas of achievement and improvement were identified. Then, a review of workbased learningl was undertaken to identify its key characteristics and to assess the extent to which it would  operate as a mechanism for improving higher education services in Australia. Several elements of workbased learning were identified that would lead to a material improvement in education services in Australia. However, this research has identified underlying barriers within the Australian higher education system that are likely to inhibit future offerings of workbased learning by Australian universities. This however, will not necessarily impede its application.

Some authorities have already identified that new players and new institutions will enter the market to respond to the more flexible needs of individual students, businesses and the labour market (deWeert 2011). Australian universities have a strong  future demand for bachelor degrees offered via the conventional academic pathway and the incentives are too high to falter from this path. In the absence of government policy, which was a significant factor in the development and growth of workbased learning in the UK (Garnett and Workman 2009), the  growth of workbased learning will, most likely, depend on new entrants:  be they new institutional structures or players from other jurisdictions. Early indications from the current research being undertaken into workbased learning in Australia, is that students’ and employers’ interest in  workbased learning  is likely to expand.

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